Prostate Cancer Research Paper

There are difficulties and controversy associated with the current screening methods for prostate cancer. The PSA test for prostate cancer has become controversial as it is “not yet known for certain if this test actually does saves lives. It is not clear if the benefits of PSA screening outweigh the risks of diagnostic tests and cancer treatments” (National Cancer Institute, 2009). According to NCI, a PSA test may detect a small amount of cancer that may never become life threatening. This is referred to as over diagnosis and this can put men at risk of complications from any additional and unnecessary treatment (National Cancer Institute, 2009).

In the case for PSA screening, PCa is the leading internal malignancy in US men and the second leading cause of cancer death in American men. Early detection of prostate cancers offers the best chance of cure. The PSA blood test is the best chance of cure. Currently, the PSA blood test is the best currently available way to detect PCa and it is easy, safe and inexpensive. PSA test results is a piece of information, it is what doctors do with the information that becomes the issue. However, the great majority of PSA detected tumors have the histologic characteristics of clinically important cancers. Also, PSA detection has found tumors early advancing the diagnosis by Seeral years (5-13) and prostate cancer mortality rates in U.S have decreased by 4% (patho book) since 1992, which is 5 years after initiation of prostate screenings. The dilemma is over treating the clinically unimportant disease versus under

Another method to detect this cancer is with a Prostate Specific Antigen (PSA). Protein in the blood that is produced only by prostate cells is reflected the volume of both benign and malignant prostate tissue in the PSA. The higher the PSA level is the more likely it is that Prostate Cancer present. (“Prostate

Second is age- and race-specific PSA reference ranges. Age- and race-specific PSA reference ranges compare the PSA test results among men in the same group. Third is Percent-free PSA (fPSA) is the percentage of the total PSA that is unbound. Evidence suggests that fPSA is lower in men who have prostate cancer compared with men who do not. Fourth are the complexed PSA (cPSA) test measures the amount of bound PSA circulating in the blood. Fifth is the PSA density (PSAD) which is a test sometimes used by doctors in patients who have a large prostate gland. To determine PSAD, the PSA value (ng/mL) is divided by the volume (size in cubic centimeters) of the prostate. The size of the prostate gland is determined by Tran’s rectal ultrasound (TRUS), a procedure that uses sound waves to create a picture of the prostate. ( (Diagnosis))

PSA has become the most important biomarker for detection and follow up of prostate cancer. PSA levels of greater than 4.0ng/ml have been considered to have predictive value for prostate cancer. This screening test is well tolerated, quick, cheap, and standardized. Physicians are also familiar with the test results and can easily translate (Roobol et al., 2011). According to Wachtel, Nelius, Haynes, Dahlbeck, and de Riese (2013), the United States Preventative Health Task Force recently recommended PSA screening be abandoned in part by examining the results of two randomized trials, concluding that the results did not support the notion that the benefit of PSA screening outweighed the risks and costs even though there has been a steady decline in mortality since the early 1990s.

Although PSA Screening tests can facilitate to detect prostate cancer in its early stage, there is controversy and concern about patient being unnecessarily treated and over-diagnosed. The reliability of prostate specific antigen (PSA) testing is very poor. PSA values could be false positive caused by conditions such as benign prostatic hyperplasia, ejaculation, perineal trauma and PSA value cannot be used to rule out prostate cancer. PSA-screening misses a considerable number of patients with PCa (false-negatives) and wrongly suspects or false-positives (Hayat, Nordin and Berglund, 2013). Sensitivity of the test is determined with the percentage of people tested with the disease that had positive results equals the number of patients that were true positive. The cut-off range for an abnormal PSA screening is 4.0 ng/mL. The American Cancer Society estimated that, the sensitivity of a PSA levels cutoff of 4.0 ng/mL, was twenty one percent for detecting any prostate cancer and fifty one percent for detecting high-grade cancers (Gleason ≥8). Validity of the test can be determined by the ability of its screening to accurately identify, if the patient has the disease or not. With PSA screening alone, one cannot validate if the patient has prostate cancer and other diagnostic tests such as digital rectal exam

The prostate is a gland only found in males. It sits below the urinary bladder and in front of the rectum. As males age the prostate changes with it , it grows rapidly during puberty, filed by the rise in male hormones such are testosterone .The prostate is usually stay around the same size or grows slowly in adults, as long as the hormones are present. In young men its about the size of a walnut but it can grow much larger in older men. The prostates job is to make some of the fluid that protects and nourishes sperm cells in semen, making the semen more liquid. Several types of cells are also found in the prostate, but almost all prostate cancers develop for the gland cells. its is called adenocarcinoma. Other types of cancer that also start

The purpose of this paper is to reflect on pros and cons of PSA testing, and to review current guidelines from well respected authorities. The European Randomized Study of Screening for PCa (ERSPC) showed a 20% reduction in PCa specific mortality (Moyer, 2012). However, the prostate arm of the Prostate Lung, Colorectal and Ovarian (PLCO) Cancer Screening Trial in the United States did not demonstrate a mortality reduction of men randomly screened by PSA testing (Moyer, 2012). In addition, PCa treatment has many serious or potentially life threatening adverse effects. As a result, choosing an optimal treatment for localized PCa is difficult and controversial.

Turns out that prostate cancer is more deadly for your health than you may realize.

The PSA blood test is used by doctors to screen asymptomatic men for prostate cancer. A PSA above 4.0 ng/mL is generally considered to be elevated. Since prostate cancer increases the PSA level as the cancer progresses doctors generally recommend a biopsy if the PSA test comes back abnormally high.

While many illnesses and diseases are well understood, prostate cancer is one of the remaining cancerous conditions that is shrouded in misunderstanding. There are several main reasons for this, not the least of which is that men as a group, simply do not want to deal with this very common no cancerous condition.

PSA is an enzyme, which is found the ejaculate and its role id to breakdown the little clot that forms in the ejaculate which is called semenogelin. PSA controlled by androgen. By monitoring PSA levels it provide an idea of what happening with the androgen. And the result shows that prostate cancer is very much androgen dependent and androgen driven.

Prostate cancer: My grandpa had prostate cancer. He went to see his doctor after he found an abnormal lump on his neck. After going through Computerized tomography scan, ultrasound of the prostate and biopsy of the cancer tissue. The doctor diagnosed him with stage IV prostate cancer. The cancer has spread to other areas of his body through the lymph nodes. He gone through rounds of chemotherapy along with surgery to remove the prostate, and hormone therapy to help fight the cancer.

There are no consistent or obvious signs of prostate cancer while it is still in the early

The men whom underwent screening were exposed to unnecessarily harm of treatment. In contrast, the ERSPC trial indicated a decrease in mortality via PSA and DRE screening (National Cancer Institute, 2017). In support, PSA detects benign tumours however, discovery of tumours does not reduce death rate. However, in the United Kingdom 2006, 35,515 men diagnosed with prostate cancer, 10,168 of that died from the disease (rokar Dasgupta, 2012). It’s thought that PSA screening in general, gives rise to expectancy of life, prevents advance prostate cancer and prostate cancer related deaths, reduces the number of biopsies with negative results outside screening programme. In divergence, every 1 – 4-years attendance for screening, overtreatment, false reassurance of negative results and screening giving PSA false positive test results leading to unnecessary biopsies (rokar Dasgupta, 2012). In support, small tumours may not need immediate action, (over diagnosis, overtreatment). Overtreatment leads to complications, exposure to side effects; incontinence, erectile disfunction, and infection. Early detection doesn’t stop malignant growth with rapid metastasis. In addition, false positives given via PSA assay, leads to unnecessary treatment of healthy prostates, 25% of men that undergo biopsy have indolent PCa. Study shows, patients who’ve undergone PSA and prostatectomy, showed little reduction in PCa mortality in contrast to those on active surveillance over 12 years. There is